Synthesis of Aquasomes With Different Compositions

Synthesis of Aquasomes With Different Compositions Executive Summary of Research Proposal (maximum 300 words) (Please include the problem statement, objectives, research methodology, expected output/outcomes/implication, and significance of output from the research project) The last three decades have witnessed remarkable and breathtaking advances in the field of biotechnology, biochemistry, molecular biology and peptide synthesis. These developments have facilitated the pharmaceutical industry to make remarkable progress in the development of peptide and proteins as drugs. Since proteins are known to be involved in essentially all biological processes and reactions, they represent a promising class of therapeutics. Administration of these classes of drugs to humans is formidable challenge for biotechnologist as well as pharmacist. The biggest problems lying in their governance are physical and chemical instability, poor bioavailability and lack of knowledge for delivering them. These problems can be solved by using the aquasomes. Aquasomes combines biotechnology and nanotechnology approaches. These sugar balls are the recent addition in delivery systems that have wider applications in peptide and protein delivery. Aquasomes are three-layered self-assem bled nanostructures. They contain solid nanocrystalline core lile calcium phosphate coated with polyhydroxy oligomers over which peptide and protein are adsorbed. The carbohydrate coating protects the peptide from dehydration and stabilizes the active peptide molecules. Structural stability is provided by solid core. Aqausomes maintains the conformational integrity of peptide which makes it ideal carrier system for delivery of peptides. In the proposed work Aquasomes, a novel nano drug delivery system compassing of hydroxy apatite (HA) core having carbohydrate coating will be prepared. Urokinase will be immobilized on these nanostructures for thromobolytic therapy. The prepared systems will be characterized for size, shape, size distribution, enzyme loading efficiency, and in vivo performance. The in vivo performance of the formulated aquasome will be compared with standard urokinase preparation. In Aquasome the steric hindrance is provided by polyhydroxyoligomers between enzyme and blood component (Plasma protein). Later RES cells assist in removing exogenous material from blood stream .The polyhydroxy oligomers maintain three dimensional conformation of enzyme and also helps in deferring recognizition from RES cells. Therefore it is proposed that aquasome not only act as dehydroprotectant but also preserve the three dimensional conformation of enzyme in blood, which enhanced dramatically the half-life of enzyme. So it is expected that proposed system can add new dimension in delivery of urokinase through its rapid onset of action, maximal efficacy and safety Research background including Problem Statement, Hypothesis/Research Questions, Literature Reviews, Related References and Relevance to Goverment Policy, if any. Problem statement Urokinase is a serine protease enzyme which is widely used as an anti-thromboembolic drug in thrombolytic therapy. Urokinase is a strong plasminogen activator. Activation of plasmin activates a proteolysis cascade which breaks down the fibrin polymers of blood clots. This makes urokinase a very important drug against vascular diseases.Urokinase has a half-life of 10-20 mins in plasma. Due to which it is needed to given patient in a short time span for treatment.2 These problems can be solved by using the aquasomes. Aquasomes combines biotechnology and nanotechnology approaches. These sugar balls are the recent addition in delivery systems that have wider applications in peptide and protein delivery. Aquasomes are three-layered self-assembled nanostructures. They contain solid nanocrystalline core like calcium phosphate coated with polyhydroxy oligomers over which peptide and protein are adsorbed. The carbohydrate coating protects the peptide from dehydration and stabilizes the active peptide molecules. Structural stability is provided by solid core. Aqausomes maintains the conformational integrity of peptide which makes it ideal carrier system for delivery of peptides.3,4 Hypothesis Urokinase is a thrombolytic enzyme having half life of 10-20 minutes. In the present work is an attempt is to retain the spatial properties of streptokinase i.e. three-dimensional conformation, which is a freedom internal molecular rearrangement generated by intermolecular interaction and a freedom of bulk movement. Using aquasomes a high degree of molecular preservation may be achieved by virtue of the significant degree of retained biological activity. The aquasomes also avoid the elimination of drug by reticuloendothelial system therefore sustained delivery of drug may be achieved, and a circulating bioreactor could possibly be developed which may be used as preventive measure to avoid probable vascular embolism Research Questions Is it possible to immobilize Urokinase on aquasomes? Do Aquasmoes will be able to preserve the activity of Urokinase? Is it possible to achieve sustain release of urokinase with aquasomes after PEGylation? Is it possible to use similar platform for other peptide drugs? Literature review Current status of research and development in the subject Kossovsky et al.5( 1995) reported first synthesis of aquasomes for delivery of protein antigen and mussel adhesive protein. After that around fifteen research publications were appeared in scientific community utilizing aquasomes for peptide and drug delivery. Recently Aquasomes were used in delivery of peptide and drugs like insulin6 and indomethacin.7 Vyas et al.8 also used aquasomes for hepatitis antigen delivery. The relevance and expected outcome of the proposed study Venous thromboembolism (VTE) is a common and potentially life threatening condition which is still under diagnosed and undertreated.VTE treatment is full of risk as patient requires precise dosing of drugs with careful monitoring.9 Due to these problems in last decade lot of studies were done for developing novel antithrombotic agents. Urokinase is a serine protease (EC 3.4.21.73) enzyme which is also called urokinase-type plasminogen activator (uPA). It is a thromobolytic agent. It was originally isolated from human urine, but it is also found in blood stream and the extracellular matrix. Urokinase directly activates conversion of plasminogen to plasmin which is a primary protein accountable for fibrinolysis.10 Urokianse has a half-life of 10-20 mins due to which it is not available in body for longer time. There is urgent need of a carrier which can carry the urokinase for longer time. Aquasomes is an answer for this need. As it carry the peptide with full retention of therapeutic activity for longer time. So there is a need of developing a drug delivery system for delivery of Urokinase in sustain manner11 It is projected that propose system can add new dimension in delivery of urokianse through its rapid onset of action, maximal efficacy and safety. References Degim IT, Celebi N. Controlled delivery of peptides and proteins. Curr Pharm Des 2007;13:99-117 Erdogan S, Ozer AY, and Bilgili H. In vivo behaviour of vesicular urokinase. Int. J. Pharm.2005 295: 1–6 Juliano RL. Microparticulate drug carriers: liposomes, microspheres and cells. In: Robinson JR, Lee VHL, editors. Controlled drug delivery. 2nd ed. New York: Marcel Dekker, Inc.; 2005. p. 555-80. Rawat M, Singh D, Saraf S, Saraf S. Nanocarriers: promising vehicles for bioactive drugs. Biol Pharm Bull 2006; 29:1790-8. Kossovsky N, Gelman A, Rajguru S, Nguyan R, Sponsler E, Hnatyszyn CK, et al. Control of molecular polymorphism by a structured carbohydrate/ceramic delivery vehicle-aquasomes. J Control Release 1996; 39:383-8. Cherian AK, Rana AC, Jain SK. Self-assembled carbohydrate-stabilized ceramic nanoparticles for the parenteral delivery of insulin. Drug Dev Ind Pharm 2000;26:459-63. Oviedo RI, Lopez SAD, Gasga RJ, Barreda CTQ. Elaboration and structural analysis of aquasomes loaded with indomethecin. Eur J Pharm Sci 2007; 32:223-30. Vyas SP, Goyal AK, Rawat A, Mahor S, Gupta PN, Khatri K.Nanodecoy system: a novel approach to design hepatitis B vaccine for immunopotentiation. Int J Pharm 2006; 309:227-33. Agarwal S, Lee AD, Raju RS, Stephen E. Venous thromboembolism: A problem in the Indian/Asian population? Indian J Urol 2009; 25:11-6. Agarwal Y.K, Vaidya H, Bhatt H, Manna K, Brahmkshatriya P Recent Advances in the Treatment of Thromboembolic Diseases: Venous Thromboembolism Medicinal Research Reviews, 2007 ; 27:891-914, Kaur K,Kush P,Pandey RS,Madan J,Jain UK,Katare OP Stealth lipid coated aquasomes bearing recombinant human interferon-ÃŽ ±-2b offered prolonged release and enhanced cytotoxicity in ovarian cancer cells.2015; 59 :267–276 (b) Objective (s) of the Research Urokinase is an unstable (half-life of 10-20 mins) enzyme. Pharmacist plays and important role in their stabilization, formulation and effective delivery. Over all aim of this study is to develop urokinase immobilized aquasome. Aquasome will protect urokinase from degradation and dehydration. It will also enhance and sustain its thrombolytic activity with reduced side effects. Specific objectives will be 1. To synthesize aquasomes having different compositions. Aquasomes with different sugar coating will be synthesized. Sucrose, Trehalose , Lactose and Pyrodoxial-5-phospahte will be used for sugar coating. Characterization of these nanoparticulte system will done using Transmission electron microscopy, Scanning electron microscopy, Zetasizer and X-ray powder diffractometry (XRPD). Determination of particle morphology and distribution size analysis of nanoparticles will be performed. 2 To immobilize urokinase on aquasomes and coating of PEGylated phospholipids Optimization of aquasome formulations for maximum loading of enzyme will be performed. Enzyme activity will be measured for immobilized enzyme and later they will be coated with PEGylated phospholipids for sustain release. 3. Characterization of these nanoparticulte systems after immobilization will be performed using Transmission electron microscopy, Scanning electron microscopy and Zetasizer 3. In-Vitro evaluation of aquasomal formulations Aquasomal formulations will evaluated for protein (Urokinase) release. (c) Methodology The envisaged work shall be undertaken on the following lines (1) Preformulation studies 1.1. Identification test for proteins IR spectroscopy SDS PAGE 1.2. Identification Test of Formulation Adjuvants (Sugars) Molish Test Moore’s Test Polarimetric determination of sugars 1.3. Preparation of calibration curve of adjuvants (Trehalose and Cellobiose) 1.4. Preparation of calibration curve of Enzyme as a Protein 1.5 Preparation of Calibration curve of Enzyme in PBS (pH 7.4) and Plasma (2) Preparation and Characterization of Hydroxy Apatite 2.1 Optimization of the method for the preparation of Hydroxy Apatite 2.1.1 Characterization of Hydroxy Apatite prepared by self-precipitation Size and Shape e.g TEM and SEM Crystal properties e.g XRD 2.1.2 Preparation and Characterization of Aquasome 2.1.3 Optimization of the poly hydroxyl Oligomers concentration on Hydroxy Apatite 2.1.4 Optimization of drying condition 2.1.5 Optimization of Protein concentration 2.16 Characterization of Optimized Aquasome formulation. Confirmation of poly hydroxyl Oligomers coating by Zeta Potential measurement Determination of loading efficiency of various Aquasome formulations In-vitro release rate studies Assessment of Biodegradability of Different Formulation Retention of Enzyme Activity Reaction Kinetics of Aquasome adsorbed Urokinase Urokinase specific Antibody Detection (3) Stability studies of prepared formulation SDS-PAGE Storage Stability Expected Results/Benefit It is expected that proposed formulation will retain the spatial properties of urokinase i.e. three-dimensional conformation, which is basically achieved by freedom of internal molecular rearrangement for intermolecular interaction and without any bulk movement. Using carbohydrate based aquasomes a high degree of molecular preservation may be achieved by virtue of the significant degree of retained biological activity. The aquasomes also avoid the elimination of drug by reticuloendothelial system therefore sustained and controlled delivery of drug may be achieved. Therefore, it is aim to develop an Aquasome system being streptokinase to protect drug from degradation and dehydration as well as to enhance and sustain its biological activity with reduced side effects. It will help us in getting preliminary results which will be very useful in writing big research project grants to other funding agencies. It is also expected that this research work will allows us to publish quality publications.

Thomas Hart Bentons June Morning. :: essays research papers

  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  I never go anywhere alone. After a depressive Saturday morning I finally crawled out of bed and went to the Cummer Museum. Art is one thing that I don’t understand. How people can find deeper meanings from paint on a canvas is Japanese to me. When I look at a painting I see exactly what is being shown and nothing more. There is no deeper meaning evident. Being at this museum cranky and solo trying to find a picture I felt connected to was almost impossible. It took me about ten minutes to go through the whole museum. But in one of the last sections I went in there was finally something that my eyes were drawn to. An image that made me want to find the deeper meaning. Thomas Hart Benton’s June Morning.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚     Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  From across the room I could see the bright yellow, pink and red flowers. Taking some steps forward there was even more to like. The overall appearance is a depiction of everyday life. The setting is outside in a grassy area. The sky looks grey but is turning brighter. There is a house in the country whose owner is in the front milking a cow. There is a dead tree that stands bear in the center. The objects that appear closest are a broken fence and the intensely bright colored flowers. All of the objects seem animated and do not seem realistic. The clouds are grey and sharp. Making the viewer feel that something is wrong. It looks like a storm was just taking place. The wind blew the clouds away and is still blowing the grass to the right.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Somehow I related to this painting at the moment. Looking back in the distance in the sky you see that there was a turbulent time. Saturday was such an awful morning. When backing up you see the bottom of the picture. The lush lively flowers show the bright side happy ending. This was my reminder that there is a calm after the storm just like in the picture.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  After coming home I thought it would be a good idea to do some research. What was going on at the time Benton painted, June Morning? This would help to solve the mystery of what some of the symbolism was trying to say. Thomas Hart Benton was a regionalist who used art to depict the experiences of an everyday American.

What is hysteria? Discuss how hysteria was important in the origins of psychoanalysis.

Introduction Throughout the history of psychology, the term Hysteria was used to describe symptoms of illness that were atypical to already established diseases (Feinstein, 2011). Neuropsychiatrists of the 1800-1900s described Hysteria as an illness where dissociation occurs for reasons that are not obvious. The symptoms shown in a hysterical patient are those such as anaesthesia, amnesia, abulia, motor control disorders and changes in personality (Haule, 1986). These symptoms are known today as a type of psychoneurosis which causes emotional excitability, provoking emotions such as fear or panic. Disturbance of the sensory, motor and cognitive functions of humans are also a result of this particular neurosis (Patel, 2012). It has been argued by critics of the DSM that the condition, Hysteria, lacks validity and that the only reason why it lasted as a category of disease throughout history is due to tradition (Feinstein, 2011). Thus, in 1994, the DSM-IV removed ‘hysteria’ as an estab lished disease and divided the symptoms of the disease into two sections now known as Somatoform Disorder and Dissociative Disorder. The issues under these two umbrella terms covered the symptoms that were accepted by the original term ‘hysteria’ (Feinstein, 2011). The DSM-IV stated that the diagnoses for the conditions which lie under the umbrella terms Somatoform Disorder and Dissociative Disorder are particularly relevant to the formerly known diagnostic categories of hysteria. These conditions are Somatisation Disorder, Conversion Disorder and Dissociative Amnesia (Feinstein, 2011). Conversion Disorder was the most closely associated to the disorders that were treated by Charcot and Freud in the 1900s, and refers to symptoms that mimic neurological disorders such as motor and sensory deficits, pseudo seizures and mixed presentations. These symptoms should not relate to any organic source of illness, nor be associated with substance use/abuse or the patients particip ation in culturally endorsed behaviours such as trances during religious ceremonies in order for them to be and have been diagnosed as hysteria (Feinstein, 2011). The aim of the present essay is to outline what hysteria was, and how it related to psychoanalysis. So, although the symptoms of hysteria are now represented through separate categories of mental disorders in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual in the present day, for the purpose of this essay, the term hysteria will be used to encapsulate all of the symptoms, and in order to embody the historical and contextual term whilst discussing the relevance of the condition to the origins of psychoanalysis. The literature suggests that the causes of hysteria are linked to past traumas, conflict, undue stress such as bereavement and a history of abuse (Patel, 2012). It has also been theorised that repression of sexual or aggressive behaviours could trigger hysteria. This concept was best conveyed through Freud’s work on pat ient Anna O, where psychoanalysis had begun to take form. Freud had treated Anna O for symptoms of Hysteria by joining Breuer’s talk therapy and Charcot’s view of hysteria (Webster, 2004). Anna O’s symptoms represented the typical manifestation of hysteria. Physical symptoms consisted of a cough, paralysis on the right side of the body, contractures, and disturbances in vision, hearing and language. Psychological symptoms consisted of lapses in consciousness and frequent hallucinations. These symptoms are similar to the modern day indicators of Conversion Disorder. Doctors found no organic cause for Anna O’s symptoms, so as a result of this, she was diagnosed with hysteria. Through the work on Anna O, an outline for psychoanalysis had begun to emerge (Webster, 2004). Freud continued to use the same therapeutic techniques on other patients who displayed the symptoms of hysteria, consequently bringing psychoanalysis into full bloom (Webster, 2004). The proc ess of exploring concepts such as the unconscious, repression and intrapsychic conflict in hysterical patients aided the development of psychoanalysis. Hypnosis, directive and abreactive techniques, and an early form of free association were used with these patients. Through these experiments Freud was able to strengthen the foundation of his psychoanalytical theory by adding these techniques to his practice of psychoanalysis (Krohn, 1978). Freudian psychoanalytic theory, and its associated practice, psychoanalysis, placed emphasis on the theory of the unconscious mind. Freud had proposed that the mind was composed of three components: the id, ego and superego. These components were suggested to play a significant role in the development of hysteria and are best explained through their association to the psychosexual stages of development (Yarom, 2005). The psychosexual stages of development encompass the Oral, Anal, Phallic, Latent and Genital phases. The theory holds the standpoin t that the ego develops during the Oral phase, and the superego develops during the Phallic phase. The subject of hysteria has widely been studied in ego psychology and its understanding was enhanced in the more recent studies throughout the literature, as a personality disorder related to conflicts within the ego (Yarom, 2005). Psychoanalytic theory had proposed that the ego and the superego were developed by the psyche in order to put into effect some control over the libido during psychosexual development and throughout adult life, so that need for gratification is directed into socially acceptable ways. Freud had stated that need for gratification is associated with the different parts of the body during each stage of psychosexual development, thus the conflict between the id, ego and the superego is associated with whichever psychosexual stage the individual is at (McLeod, 2008). The conflict within the psyche at the Phallic stage is what has been theorised to bring about the O edipus and Electra Complexes in individuals (McLeod, 2008). The suggestion made by Freud was that hysteria was associated with rejected sexuality. Freud put forward strong references to the female sexuality. This connection was made through the theory of the Electra complex in which females are said to have unconscious incestuous wishes and envy the penis of their male caregivers. For this reason, hysteria was a disease strongly related to women (Yarom, 2005) On the other hand, neo-Freudian approaches, such as that of Horney’s (1967) suggested that penis envy should be considered as a secondary as opposed to primary phenomenon, in the sense that women’s sexual identities are more focused on aspirations to bear children rather than achieve orgasm. However, it may be suggested that this still provides a sexist standpoint against women as it portrays women as only being interested in bearing children. Nonetheless, sexism was slowly overcome as history progressed and this was evident through the fact that hysteria gradually became a disorder that was associated with males as well as females (Yarom, 2005). Yet contradictory literature shows studies during the 1970s which still insisted that hysteria was more prevalent among women than men, with a high comorbidity evident between sociopathy and hysteria, especially in women (Cloninger & Guze, 1971). These findings are supported by Lerner (1974) who stated that hysteria is a disease frequently applied to women and less frequently, if never, to men. However, despite these studies showing evidence in the literature that hysteria is a female only disease, it may be suggested that the chauvinistic and patriarchal nature of society throughout history may have influenced the findings that although males may exhibit hysterical behaviours, it does not necessarily mean that they have the condition hysteria. It may be the case that male researchers did not want to associate this ‘weakness in characterâ€⠄¢ to the male population, therefore put it forth as a female only illness, maintaining the ‘strong’ image of men. Secondly, since the majority of the researchers in this area of interest were males, it may also be suggested that they lacked empathy and understanding of the emotions and behaviours that females were exhibiting, thus interpreted these as more hysterical than those which the males were exhibiting. Conversely, the paper by Lerner (1974) does indicate that hysterical symptoms such as conversion reactions and dissociative phenomena were been observed in men, but that these patients did not display the cognitive and personality characteristics of the hysterical individual, therefore they did not have hysteria. Yet, in any case, when social and contextual factors are taken into consideration, it brings one’s attention to the fact that the doctors and researchers involved in studies of Hysteria were mainly male, reinforcing the notion that the literature was also dominated by observations influenced by patriarchal males. To lend additional support to this view, it was advocated that the explanation of the prevalence of Hysteria among women on the part of psychoanalysts was focused on preoedipal and oedipal developmental tasks that must be mastered by males and females, yet the libidinal development of the two sexes only offers a partial explanation of the alleged sex differences in Hysteria, therefore it is more rational to hold the belief that social and cultural factors play a major role in the issue (Lerner, 1974). With reference to conflict within the psyche during each psychosexual stage, the purpose of psychoanalysis was to aid the patient in bringing forward to consciousness the repressed thoughts and emotions that were associated with these phases. Resolving these conflicts would strengthen the ego (Zimberoff & Hartman, 2000).. In accord, the likelihood of developing hysteria would lessen. This is supported by the notion tha t tension during each phase relies on the way in which the ego deals with anxiety, and that hysteria is a result of manifested repression of an incompatible idea on the ego’s part (Vaillant, 1992). Therefore, the evidence based on the relationship between the id, ego and superego in psychosexual stages and the development of hysteria, played a cruicial role as a catalyst in bringing the theory of psychoanalysis into practice. This is evident through the demonstration of how resolving psychosexual conflicts strengthens the ego, therefore avoiding the development of hysteria. Although the role of Hysteria in the development of psychoanalysis is clear, it must be noted that the patriarchal approach taken by Freud and other researchers during the studies of Hysteria had also reflected on the theory and practice of psychoanalysis (Bernheimer & Kahane, 1985). Freud’s writings were based mainly on male development (McLeod, 2008). This could imply one of two things: Either tha t he held the belief that female development mirrored male development, or that it was inferior to male development. Hence, it is appropriate for one to question the theory that if hysteria was a female only disease, was it a mirror of male hysteriaThis could in turn imply that males were also prone to developing hysteria, therefore weakening the literature throughout history that hysteria was limited to females. On the other hand, it may also be suggested that if only the ‘hysterical symptoms’ that were limited to men, were mirrored by women and were manifested in women as full blown hysteria, that hysteria was in fact a disease in full bloom in males as well as females. If women mirroring the behaviour of men was the case, this would suggest and further reinforce the idea that psychoanalysis the product of a patriarchal foundation, as hysteria was the catalyst which had patriarchal influences attached to it. As a consequence, one is left in a position to question whet her studies on hysteria had influenced psychoanalysis, or whether psychoanalysis had influenced the findings and history of hysteria, as they both appear to be partners in crime when the issue of sexism has been mentioned throughout the literature. In summary, hysteria is a set of symptoms known in the modern day as three different categories of mental disorder, classified by the DSM-IV as: Somatisation Disorder, Conversion Disorder and Dissociative Amnesia. These three categories include the indicators of hysteria such as anaesthesia, amnesia, abulia, motor control disorders and changes in personality. Modern psychology suggests that hysteria is brought on through past traumas, conflict, undue stress such as bereavement and a history of abuse. However, throughout the history of psychology, it was believed that hysteria was the ego’s reaction to suppressed sexual or aggressive behaviours. Freud, Charcot and Breuer played significant roles in the establishment of the term hyst eria, and Anna O had been the first patient to be treated for the symptoms of hysteria. Through the practice of talking therapy and free association, Freud began to establish the theory of psychoanalysis as he worked with Anna O. Theories of the unconscious mind and its components, the id, ego and superego began to emerge as Freud established their roles in the development of the human psyche. Later, hypnosis, directive and abreactive techniques, were used with Freud’s patients. It was through the founding of the psychosexual stages of development that psychoanalysis began to blossom in full bloom. Many doctors in the 1800-1900s had associated hysteria with females, considering it to be a women’s only disease and suggesting that men merely showed symptoms of the disease – not a complete case (Lerner, 1974). For this reason, Freud had suggested that the conflict of the psyche during the Phallic stage, especially for females, whom struggled with penis envy, was wh at manifested as Hysteria at a later stage in life (Yarom, 2005). However, subsequent and more recent speculation highlighted the fact that these findings were discovered during a highly patriarchal time in history, where the medical field was widely dominated by men. Thus, it became evident that hysteria was, and still is a mental disorder found to be equally as prevalent in both men and women (Tucker, 2009). In conclusion, with respect to the essay question at hand, it was considered that hysteria was a significant foundation and catalyst for the development of psychoanalysis. However, due to the fact that hysteria itself was a flawed phenomenon in the way it was reflected throughout the literature at the time, psychoanalysis also became a skewed theory, based on patriarchal and chauvinistic theories. Nonetheless, this does not change the fact that Hysteria, and Anna O played a major role in the founding of psychoanalysis. Moreover, it should be considered that Hysteria is now an outdated term. The symptoms have been revised and the categories for the symptoms have been divided by the DSM, reflecting the progression that psychological literature has made since the time of Freud and psychoanalysis. References Bernheimer, C. and Kahane, C. (1985). In Dora’s case. 1st ed. New York: Columbia University Press. Clonninger, C. and Guze, S. (1970). Psychiatric Illness and Female Criminality: The Role of Sociopathy and Hysteria in the Antisocial Woman. American Journal of Psychiatry. 127(3), pp.303-311. Feinstein, A. (2011). Conversion disorder: advances in our understanding. Canadian Medical Association Journal. 183(8). 915-920. Haule J.R. (1986). Pierre Janet and dissociation: the first transference theory and its origins in Hypnosis. Am J Clin Hypnosis. 29: 86-94 Horney, K. (1967). Feminine psychology. 1st ed. New York: W.W. Norton. Krohn, A. (1978). Hysteria, the elusive neurosis. 1st ed. New York: International Universities Press. McLeod, S. (2014). Psychosexual Stages | Simply Psychology. [online] Simplypsychology.org. Available at: http://www.simplypsychology.org/psychosexual.html [Accessed 24 Apr. 2014]. Patel, M. and Patel, M. (2012). An Introduction to Hysteria: Causes Symptoms and Treatment. [online] mDhil. Available at: http://www.mdhil.com/an-introduction-to-hysteria/ [Accessed 24 Apr. 2014]. Psychologistworld.com, (2014). Sigmund Freud – Psychology Issues – Psychologist World. [online] Available at: http://www.psychologistworld.com/psychologists/freud_1.php [Accessed 24 Apr. 2014]. Webster, R. (2014). Anna O and Hysteria: Charcot and the origins of psychoanalysis. [online] Available at: http://www.richardwebster.net/print/xfreudandcharcot.htm [Accessed 24 Apr. 2014]. Vaillant, G.E. (1992). Ego Mechanisms of Defense: A Guide for Clinicians and Researchers. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Press. Yarom, N. (2005). Matrix of hysteria. 1st ed. London: Routledge. Zimberoff, D. and Hartman, D. (2000). Ego Strengthening and Ego Surrender. Journal of Heart-Centered Therapies, 3(2), pp.3-66.

Pictures and Profiles of Prehistoric Primates